Health markers, explained
What each marker means, typical ranges, why it may be high or low — plus research-backed health articles.
📖 Health articles
Vitamin K: not just clotting – bones and heart
Vitamin K2 activates proteins that deposit calcium in bones and protect arteries from calcification – its role extends well beyond coagulation.
Thyroid in pregnancy: TSH ranges and monitoring
The thyroid works 50% harder during pregnancy. Learn how TSH ranges change each trimester and what to monitor.
Transferrin Saturation (TSAT): The Key to Iron Transport
An article about transferrin saturation (TSAT) as an important blood marker for iron transport and what low or high values may indicate.
Iron Deficiency vs Inflammation: How to Tell Apart
Ferritin rises with inflammation too — how to distinguish true iron deficiency from falsely elevated ferritin using CRP, TSAT and other markers.
Restless Legs Syndrome: what blood tests show
Restless legs syndrome is often linked to iron, ferritin, magnesium or B12 deficiency. Learn which blood tests help find the cause.
Diabetes Complications: What to Monitor
Diabetes complications affecting kidneys, heart, and nerves can be detected earlier through regular blood monitoring -- HbA1c, eGFR, lipid panel, B12.
Loss of Appetite: What Blood Tests Reveal
Loss of appetite may indicate liver, kidney, inflammation, or vitamin disorders. Learn which blood tests to take first.
Summer vs Winter Blood Tests: Seasonal Changes
How seasons change vitamin D, TSH, hemoglobin, and CRP levels, and when to schedule blood tests.
Smartwatches: HRV, SpO2, and Sleep Data
What smartwatch HRV, SpO2, and sleep data mean, when they matter, and what their limits are.
Inflammation and Diet: How Food Affects CRP
How the Mediterranean diet, omega-3, fiber, and processed foods affect CRP and chronic inflammation.
Vegan Diet: What to Check in Your Blood Tests
Key blood tests for vegetarians and vegans: B12, iron, ferritin, vitamin D, zinc, and other markers.
Menopause: The Most Important Blood Tests
Key menopause blood tests: FSH, estradiol, lipids, TSH, vitamin D, glucose, and inflammation markers.
B12 and Folate: Nerve and Blood Health
B12 and folate deficiency can affect nerves and blood long before symptoms appear. Who is most at risk and what you need to know.
Kidney Function: What Creatinine and eGFR Reveal
Creatinine and eGFR show how well your kidneys filter blood. Learn what these markers mean and why early detection of problems matters.
Testosterone: What a Man's Blood Test Really Shows
Testosterone governs muscles, energy, mood and metabolism. Learn what your blood test numbers mean and how lifestyle drives levels.
Vitamin D: Immunity, Bones and Mood
Vitamin D is far more than a bone vitamin. It regulates immunity, mood and muscle function. Who is at risk of deficiency — and what to do about it.
Liver Enzymes: What ALT, AST and GGT Tell You
ALT, AST and GGT are three liver stress markers in a standard blood test. Learn what elevated levels mean and how lifestyle drives results.
Constant Fatigue: What 5 Blood Markers Can Reveal
Fatigue is the most common complaint doctors hear — and one of the most common cases where the answer hides in a simple blood test. Five markers worth knowing.
Complete Blood Count
- White Blood CellsLearn what a white blood cell (WBC) count measures, typical reference ranges, and what high or low results may mean for your health.
- Red Blood CellsRed Blood Cells (RBC) measure how many oxygen-carrying cells are in your blood. Learn what high or low counts mean and when to follow up.
- HemoglobinLearn what hemoglobin (Hgb) measures, typical reference ranges, and what high or low results may be associated with.
- HematocritHematocrit (HCT) measures the percentage of red blood cells in your blood. Learn what high or low results mean and when to act.
- MCVMCV measures the average size of your red blood cells. Abnormal values help identify the type of anaemia and guide further investigation.
- MCHMCH measures the average hemoglobin in a red blood cell (pg). Low values suggest iron deficiency; high values may point to B12 or folate deficiency.
- MCHCLearn what MCHC is, its normal range (32–36 g/dL), why it may be high or low, and what to do next.
- RDWLearn what RDW-CV is, what the normal range (11.5–14.5 %) means, why it may be high or low, and what steps to take.
- PlateletsLearn what a platelet (PLT) count measures, typical reference ranges, and what high or low results may mean for your health.
- Neutrophils (Absolute)Learn what the absolute neutrophil count (NEUT#) is, reference ranges (1.8–7.7 × 10³/µL), and causes of elevated or decreased values.
- Lymphocytes (Absolute)Learn what the absolute lymphocyte count (LYMPH#) is, reference ranges (1.0–4.8 × 10³/µL), and causes of high or low results.
- Monocytes (Absolute)Learn what monocytes are, normal ranges (0.2–0.9 × 10³/µL), why they may be high or low, and what to do.
- Eosinophils (Absolute)Learn what eosinophils are, normal ranges (0.0–0.5 × 10³/µL), why they may be high or low, and what to do.
- Neutrophils %What neutrophils (NEUT%) mean in your blood test: normal range 40–70 %, causes of high or low values, and when to see your doctor.
- Lymphocytes %What lymphocytes (LYMPH%) mean in your blood test: normal range 20–45 %, causes of high or low values, and when to see your doctor.
- Monocytes %What monocytes (MONO%) mean in your blood test: normal range 2–10 %, causes of high or low values, and when to see your doctor.
- Eosinophils %What are eosinophils (EOS%), reference ranges, causes of high or low levels, and questions to ask your doctor.
- Basophils (Absolute)Basophils are the rarest white blood cells, involved in allergic reactions. Learn what BASO# means in your blood test.
- Basophils %Basophils are the rarest white blood cells, linked to allergies. Learn what BASO% means in your complete blood count.
- Immature Granulocytes (Absolute)IG# shows the absolute count of immature granulocytes in blood — an early marker of infection and bone marrow activity.
- Immature Granulocytes %IG% shows the percentage of immature granulocytes among all white blood cells — an early marker of infection and bone marrow response.
- NRBC (Absolute)What nucleated red blood cells (NRBC#) mean in your blood test: normally undetectable in adults, causes of their appearance, and when to see your doctor.
- NRBC %NRBC% shows the proportion of nucleated red blood cells per 100 white blood cells. Normally absent in adults. Learn what elevated NRBC% means.
- Reticulocytes (Absolute)Reticulocytes RET# reflect bone marrow activity. Learn what a high or low absolute reticulocyte count means for your health.
- Reticulocytes %Reticulocytes RET% show the share of young red blood cells in blood. Learn what elevated or reduced values mean.
- IRF (Immature Reticulocyte Fraction)Immature Reticulocyte Fraction (IRF%) shows the proportion of the youngest reticulocytes. Learn what elevated or low IRF% means in your blood test.
- LFR (Low-Fluorescence Reticulocytes)LFR% shows the proportion of mature reticulocytes in blood. Learn what changes in this value mean on your blood test report.
- MFR (Medium-Fluorescence Reticulocytes)MFR% measures the mid-maturity fraction of reticulocytes, reflecting current bone marrow output and treatment response.
- HFR (High-Fluorescence Reticulocytes)HFR% identifies the youngest reticulocytes in circulation, making it the most sensitive early marker of acute bone marrow activity changes.
- RET-He (Reticulocyte Hemoglobin)RET-He measures the hemoglobin packed into new red cells, revealing iron availability in real time — often before hemoglobin itself drops.
- RDW-SDRDW-SD quantifies the spread of red cell sizes in femtoliters; elevated values indicate anisocytosis from nutritional or hemolytic causes.
- MPVMPV measures average platelet size. Learn why it may be elevated or decreased and what it means for your health.
- PDWPDW shows the variability in platelet size in the blood. Learn what an elevated or decreased PDW result means.
- P-LCRP-LCR indicates the proportion of large platelets in the blood. Learn what causes elevated or decreased P-LCR values.
- Plateletcrit (PCT)Plateletcrit (PCT) shows the fraction of blood volume occupied by platelets. Learn what causes abnormal PCT and what to do.
Metabolic Panel
- Glucose (Fasting)Learn what fasting glucose (FBG) measures, typical reference ranges, and what high or low results may indicate.
- HbA1cLearn what HbA1c (glycated hemoglobin) measures, typical reference ranges, and what high or low results may mean.
- Insulin (Fasting)Learn what fasting insulin is, normal ranges (2.6–24.9 µIU/mL), why it may be high or low, and what to do.
- BUNLearn what BUN is, its normal ranges (7–20 mg/dL), why it may be high or low, and what to do next.
- CreatinineLearn what creatinine (Cr) measures, why kidney function matters, and what high or low levels may mean for your health.
- eGFRLearn what eGFR measures, typical reference ranges, causes of high or low results, and how to track your kidney health over time.
- SodiumSodium (Na) blood test: normal range 135-145 mmol/L, why it rises or falls, what to do and what to ask your doctor.
- PotassiumPotassium (K) blood test: normal range 3.5–5.1 mmol/L, why levels rise or fall, what to do, and what to ask your doctor.
- ChlorideChloride is an electrolyte that helps balance fluids and acid-base levels. Learn what high or low results mean and when to act.
- CO₂ (Bicarbonate)CO₂ (bicarbonate) reflects your blood's acid-base balance. Learn what high or low levels mean, what causes them, and when to seek medical advice.
- CalciumLearn what total blood calcium measures, what high or low results mean, and when to follow up with your doctor.
- AlbuminBlood albumin levels explained: what it is, reference ranges, causes of high or low results, what to do next, and questions for your doctor.
- Total ProteinTotal protein in blood: what it is, normal ranges, why it rises or falls, what to do, and what to ask your doctor.
- Bilirubin (Total)What total bilirubin is, reference ranges, causes of high or low levels, what steps to take, and questions for your doctor.
- Ionized CalciumIonized Calcium (Ca++) is the biologically active form of calcium in blood. Learn what elevated or low levels mean and what to do next.
- C-peptideC-peptide is a marker of insulin production that helps distinguish diabetes types and assess insulin resistance.
- LDH (Lactate Dehydrogenase)What is lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), normal ranges, why LDH may be elevated or low, and what to do with your results.
- AmylaseLearn what amylase is, normal blood ranges (28–100 U/L), causes of high or low levels, and when to consult your doctor.
- LipaseLearn what lipase is, normal blood ranges (13–60 U/L), causes of high or low levels, and when to consult your doctor.
- PhosphorusLearn what phosphorus is, why it may be high or low, reference ranges, and when to see a doctor about your results.
Liver Function
- ALTA clear, doctor-informed guide to understanding your ALT (alanine aminotransferase) results, reference ranges, and what to do next.
- ASTAST is a liver and muscle enzyme; learn what normal ranges mean, why levels rise or fall, and how to track it over time.
- ALPWhat is Alkaline Phosphatase (ALP), what are normal levels, why it may be high or low, and when to see a doctor.
- GGTA plain-language guide to GGT, the liver enzyme test sensitive to alcohol, bile ducts, and certain medications.
- Bilirubin, directLearn what direct bilirubin is, why it may be high or low, reference ranges, and when to see a doctor.
Lipid Panel
- Total CholesterolLearn what Total Cholesterol (TC) measures, typical reference ranges, and what high or low levels may mean for your health.
- LDL CholesterolUnderstand what LDL cholesterol measures, typical reference ranges, and what high or low results may mean for your health.
- HDL CholesterolA clear, medically careful guide to HDL cholesterol (HDL), what it measures, typical ranges, and what high or low results may mean.
- TriglyceridesLearn what triglycerides (TG) measure, typical reference ranges, and what high or low levels may mean for your health.
- Non-HDL CholesterolNon-HDL Cholesterol — what it is, reference ranges, causes of elevated or decreased values, monitoring and questions for your doctor.
- ApoBWhat is ApoB, what are the reference ranges, why the marker may be elevated or low, and when to consult a doctor.
- Atherogenic IndexAtherogenic Index (TC/HDL) — a cardiovascular risk ratio. Learn what elevated or low values mean and how to improve them.
- Lp(a)Lp(a) is a genetically determined lipoprotein linked to cardiovascular risk. Learn what an elevated level means and what to discuss with your doctor.
- Apolipoprotein A1ApoA1 is the main structural protein of HDL particles and a key marker of cardiovascular protection. Learn what your level means and how to improve it.
Thyroid
- TSHUnderstand what a TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) result means, typical reference ranges, and what high or low values may suggest.
- Free T4Learn what Free T4 (FT4) measures, typical reference ranges, and what high or low results may mean for thyroid health.
- Free T3Free T3 (FT3) is the most biologically active thyroid hormone. Learn what high or low levels mean, optimal ranges, and next steps.
- TPO AntibodiesTPO antibodies (anti-TPO) — an autoimmune thyroid marker: reference ranges, causes of elevation, Hashimoto's, and what to do.
- Anti-Thyroglobulin AntibodiesAnti-TG antibodies indicate an autoimmune thyroid process. Learn about Hashimoto's, reference ranges and monitoring.
Hormones
- Testosterone (Total)Learn what a total testosterone (T) test measures, typical reference ranges, and what may raise or lower your results.
- Testosterone (Free)Free testosterone is the active form: reference ranges for men and women, causes of changes, PCOS, and monitoring.
- EstradiolLearn what estradiol (E2) measures, typical reference ranges, causes of high or low results, and how to track this hormone over time.
- SHBGSHBG controls the amount of free sex hormones in your blood. Learn what high or low levels mean for your health.
- DHEA-SWhat is DHEA-S, reference ranges, causes of high or low levels, and questions to ask your doctor.
- Cortisol (AM)Understand what morning cortisol (AM cortisol) measures, typical reference ranges, and what high or low results may mean.
- ProlactinLearn what a prolactin (PRL) blood test measures, typical reference ranges, and what higher or lower results may mean.
- LH (Luteinizing Hormone)LH hormone — what it is, reference ranges for men and women, causes of elevated and low levels.
- FSH (Follicle-Stimulating Hormone)FSH — what it is, normal ranges, why it may be high or low, and what to discuss with your doctor.
- ProgesteroneProgesterone is a key female hormone involved in ovulation, pregnancy, and cycle regulation. Guide to normal levels and causes.
- AMH (Anti-Müllerian Hormone)AMH (Anti-Müllerian Hormone) is an ovarian reserve marker, important for fertility assessment and pregnancy planning.
- PTH (Parathyroid Hormone)PTH regulates calcium and phosphate. Why parathyroid hormone may be elevated or low and what to do.
- Cortisol (PM)Evening cortisol should drop to its lowest point by 8–10 PM. Learn what elevated or flat diurnal curves mean for sleep, metabolism, and long-term health.
Vitamins & Minerals
- Vitamin D (25-OH)A plain-language guide to the Vitamin D (25-OH) blood test, its reference ranges, and what high or low results may mean.
- Vitamin B12Understand what a Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) blood test measures, typical reference ranges, and what high or low results may indicate.
- FolateLearn what a folate blood test measures, typical reference ranges, and what high or low folate levels may mean for your health.
- FerritinFerritin reflects your body's stored iron; learn what typical ranges mean and why levels shift over time.
- Iron (Serum)Understand what a serum iron (Fe) test measures, typical reference ranges, and what high or low results may indicate.
- TIBCTIBC shows how much iron your blood can bind. A high value often signals iron deficiency.
- MagnesiumLearn what a serum magnesium (Mg) test measures, what affects results, and how to track this mineral marker over time.
- ZincZinc supports immunity and wound healing. Learn what abnormal levels mean and when to act.
- TransferrinWhat is transferrin, normal ranges (2.0-3.6 g/L), why it may be high or low, and what to do with your results.
- Transferrin SaturationWhat is transferrin saturation (TSAT), normal ranges (20–50%), why it may be abnormal, and what to do with your result.
- SeleniumSelenium is a trace element essential for thyroid function and antioxidant protection. Reference ranges, causes, and monitoring.
- CopperCopper (Cu) in blood: reference ranges 70–155 µg/dL by sex, causes of deficiency and excess, and questions for your doctor.
- Vitamin A (Retinol)Vitamin A (retinol) in blood: reference range 30–80 µg/dL, causes of high and low levels, next steps and questions for your doctor.
- Vitamin E (α-Tocopherol)Vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) in blood: reference range 5.5-17.0 mg/L, causes of excess and deficiency, and questions for your doctor.
- Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)Vitamin B1 (thiamine) in blood: reference range 70–180 nmol/L, causes of deficiency, effects of alcohol and diuretics, questions for your doctor.
- Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxal-5'-Phosphate)Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) in blood: reference range 20-125 nmol/L, causes of deficiency and excess, neuropathy risk, and questions for your doctor.
Inflammation
- hs-CRPUnderstand what hs-CRP (high-sensitivity C-reactive protein) measures, typical reference ranges, and what high or low results may mean.
- ESRESR measures non-specific inflammation by timing how fast red blood cells settle. Learn about reference ranges, causes, and monitoring.
- HomocysteineHomocysteine is a sulfur-containing amino acid linked to cardiovascular health. Learn about reference ranges, B vitamins, and monitoring.
- Uric AcidLearn what uric acid (UA) levels reveal about purine metabolism, gout risk, and metabolic health, and how to track them over time.
- Rheumatoid Factor (RF)Rheumatoid Factor (RF) is an autoantibody associated with rheumatoid arthritis and other autoimmune conditions. Learn what a positive result means.
- ASO / ASLOASLO reflects the immune response to streptococcal infection. Learn about reference ranges, causes of elevation, and monitoring.
Coagulation & Cardiac
- D-dimerD-Dimer shows fibrinolysis activity. Learn what an elevated D-Dimer level means and when to see a doctor.
- Troponin TTroponin T (TnT) is a marker of heart muscle damage. Learn what elevated levels mean, their causes, and when to see a doctor.
- FibrinogenWhat is fibrinogen, normal ranges (2.0–4.0 g/L), why values may change, and when to see a doctor. A reliable guide.
- INR (Prothrombin Time)What is INR (prothrombin time), normal ranges (0.8–1.2), why values may change, and what to do if results are abnormal.
- CK (Creatine Kinase)What is creatine kinase (CK), normal ranges, why CK may be elevated or low, and when to see a doctor.
- NT-proBNPNT-proBNP reflects the workload on your heart. Learn what an elevated result means and when further investigation is needed.
Urinalysis
- Urine ProteinUrine Protein (PRO) is a kidney filter status indicator. Learn what protein in urine means, causes, and when to see a doctor.
- Urine GlucoseUrine glucose indicates the amount of sugar in urine. Learn what a positive result means and how it relates to your health.
- Urine KetonesUrine ketones appear when your body burns fat for energy. Learn the causes, normal values, and what to do next.
- Urine BilirubinBilirubin in urine may indicate liver or bile duct problems. Learn what a positive result means and what to do next.
- Urine UrobilinogenWhat urine urobilinogen (UBG) shows, what high or low values mean, reference ranges, and when to see a doctor.
- Urine Blood (Ery)Red blood cells (blood) in urine — what a positive result means, common causes, and when to see a doctor.
- Urine LeukocytesUrine leukocytes (LEU) -- what a positive result means, common causes, and what additional tests may be needed.
- Urine NitritesUrine nitrites (NIT) — what a positive result means, the link to urinary tract infections, and when to see a doctor.
- Urine pHUrine pH measures urine acidity (normal range 4.5-8.0). Learn what causes fluctuations and when to consult a doctor.
- Urine Specific GravityUrine specific gravity (SG, normal 1.005–1.030) reflects the kidneys' ability to concentrate urine and the body's hydration level.
Serology & Infection
- Borrelia IgG (Lyme)Borrelia IgG antibodies indicate past contact with Borrelia bacteria. Results may be positive, negative, or equivocal.
- Borrelia IgM (Lyme)Borrelia IgM antibodies may indicate early contact with Borrelia bacteria. Results are interpreted alongside IgG and symptoms.
- TBE IgG (Tick-borne Encephalitis)What are TBE IgG antibodies, what positive or negative results mean, and when to consult your doctor.
- TBE IgM (Tick-borne Encephalitis)What are TBE IgM antibodies, what a positive result means, and what to do after receiving your result.
- SARS-CoV-2 AntibodiesWhat are SARS-CoV-2 antibodies, what positive or negative results mean, and their clinical significance.
Self-measured (blood pressure, pulse)
- Blood pressure — systolic (morning)Morning systolic blood pressure: what the top number means, optimal ranges per AHA/ACC and ESC/ESH, causes of high or low readings, and when to see a doctor.
- Blood pressure — diastolic (morning)What morning diastolic blood pressure means, normal ranges (60–84 mmHg), causes of high or low readings, and when to consult a doctor.
- Pulse (morning)Morning resting heart rate: normal range 50–100 bpm, optimal 55–80. Causes of elevated and decreased values, and how to monitor over time.
- Blood pressure — systolic (evening)What evening systolic blood pressure means, normal ranges, causes of high or low readings, and practical tips for home monitoring.
- Blood pressure — diastolic (evening)Evening diastolic blood pressure reflects arterial pressure during heart relaxation. Home readings give a truer picture than clinic values and help track trends over time.
- Pulse (evening)What the evening resting heart rate is, normal ranges, why it may be fast or slow, and when to consult a doctor.
Tumor markers
Wearables & body metrics
- Resting Heart RateWhat is resting heart rate, normal ranges (40–100 bpm), why it may change, and how to track trends over time.
- HRV (Heart Rate Variability)What is HRV, why there are no universal norms, how to interpret your data, and when to see a doctor.
- Sleep DurationWhat is sleep duration, recommended ranges (7–9 hours), why it may be off, and how to track trends over time.
- Deep SleepDeep Sleep: what it is, how much you need, why it decreases, and what your smartwatch data actually shows.
- REM SleepREM Sleep: how much you need, why it decreases, and what smartwatch data reveals about your sleep quality.
- Nightly SpO2Nightly SpO2: what it is, normal ranges, why it drops during sleep, and when to consult a physician.
- Body Temperature DeviationBody Temperature Deviation: what nightly data means and when it is worth consulting a physician.
- StepsLearn what your daily Steps reveal about your health, what counts as normal, and how to gradually improve your activity level.
- WeightBody weight is a key metabolic health indicator. Learn how to track weight, why it fluctuates, and what trends reveal.
- Body Fat %Body fat percentage reflects body composition more accurately than weight. Learn what values are normal, what affects them, and how to track.